Gliomas are brain tumors originating from glial cells in the nervous system. Glial cells, commonly called neuroglia or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. The two most important subgroups of gliomas are astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas, named according to the normal glial cell type from which they originate (astrocytes or oligodendrocytes, respectively). Belonging to the subgroup of astrocytomas, glioblastoma multiforme (referred to as glioblastoma hereinafter) is the most common malignant brain tumor in adults and accounts for approximately 40% of all malignant brain tumors and approximately 50% of gliomas (CBTRUS, 2006). It aggressively invades the central nervous system and is ranked at the highest malignancy level (grade IV) among all gliomas. Although there has been steady progress in treatment due to improvements in neuroimaging, microsurgery, diverse treatment options, such as temozolomide or radiation, glioblastomas remain incurable (Macdonald, 2001; Burton and Prados, 2000; Prados and Levin, 2000). The lethality rate of this brain tumor is very high: the average life expectancy is 9 to 12 months after first diagnosis. The 5-year survival rate during the observation period from 1986 to 1990 was 8.0%. To date, the five-year survival rate following aggressive therapy including gross tumor resection is still less than 10% (Burton and Prados, 2000; Nieder et al., 2000; Napolitano et al., 1999; Dazzi et al., 2000). Accordingly, there is a strong medical need for an alternative and effective therapeutic method.
Tumor cells of glioblastomas are the most undifferentiated cells among brain tumors. Thus, the tumor cells have high potential of migration and proliferation and are highly invasive, leading to very poor prognosis. Glioblastomas lead to death due to rapid, aggressive, and infiltrative growth in the brain. The infiltrative growth pattern is responsible for the unresectable nature of these tumors. Glioblastomas are also relatively resistant to radiation and chemotherapy, and, therefore, post-treatment recurrence rates are high. In addition, the immune response to the neoplastic cells is rather ineffective in completely eradicating all neoplastic cells following resection and radiation therapy (Roth and Weller, 1999; Dix et al., 1999; Sablotzki et al., 2000).
Glioblastoma is classified into primary glioblastoma (de novo) and secondary glioblastoma, depending on differences in the gene mechanism during malignant transformation of undifferentiated astrocytes or glial precursor cells. Secondary glioblastoma occurs in a younger population of up to 45 years of age. During 4 to 5 years, on average, secondary glioblastoma develops from lower-grade astrocytoma through undifferentiated astrocytoma. In contrast, primary glioblastoma predominantly occurs in an older population with a mean age of 55 years. Generally, primary glioblastoma occurs as fulminant glioblastoma characterized by tumor progression within 3 months from the state with no clinical or pathological abnormalities (Pathology and Genetics of the Nervous Systems. 29-39 (IARC Press, Lyon, France, 2000)).
Glioblastoma migrates along myelinated nerves and spreads widely in the central nervous system. In most cases surgical treatment shows only limited sustainable therapeutic effect (Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo) 34, 91-94, 1994; Neurol. Med. Chir. (Tokyo) 33, 425-458, 1993; Neuropathology 17, 186-188, 1997) (Macdonald, 2001; Prados and Levin, 2000).
Malignant glioma cells evade detection by the host's immune system by producing immunosuppressive agents that impair T cell proliferation and production of the immune-stimulating cytokine IL-2 (Dix et al., 1999).
Intracranial neoplasms can arise from any of the structures or cell types present in the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain, meninges, pituitary gland, skull, and even residual embryonic tissue. The overall annual incidence of primary brain tumors in the United States is 14 cases per 100,000. The most common primary brain tumors are meningiomas, representing 27% of all primary brain tumors, and glioblastomas, representing 23% of all primary brain tumors (whereas glioblastomas account for 40% of malignant brain tumor in adults). Many of these tumors are aggressive and are of high grade. Primary brain tumors are the most common solid tumors in children and the second most frequent cause of cancer death, after leukemia, in children.
The search for effective treatment of glioblastomas in patients is still ongoing today. Immunotherapy, or treatment via recruitment of the immune system, to fight these neoplastic cells has been investigated. First encouraging results were obtained by Northwest Therapeutics using “DCVax Brain” for the treatment of glioblastoma in immuno-therapeutic studies in humans, in which antigen-specific cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) responses could be induced leading to prolonged median survival times compared to that obtained applying standard treatment. Further this treatment was accompanied by minimal toxicity (Heimberger et al., 2006).
Colorectal Carcinoma
According to the American Cancer Society, colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in the US, afflicting more than 175,000 new patients each year. In the US, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK, it affects more than 480,000 patients. It is one of the most common causes of cancer mortality in developed countries. The 1- and 5-year relative survival for persons with colorectal cancer is 84% and 64%, respectively. Survival continues to decline beyond 5 years. For instance at 10 years after diagnosis survival is 57%. When colorectal cancers are detected at an early, localized stage, the 5-year survival is 90%; however, only 39% of colorectal cancers are diagnosed at this stage, mostly due to low rates of screening. After the cancer has spread regionally to involve adjacent organs or lymph nodes, the 5-year survival drops to 68%. For persons with distant metastases, 5-year survival is 10%.
Research suggests that the onset of colorectal cancer is the result of interactions between inherited and environmental factors. In most cases, adenomatous polyps appear to be precursors to colorectal tumors; however the transition may take many years. The primary risk factor for colorectal cancer is age, with 90% of cases diagnosed over the age of 50 years. Other risk factors for colorectal cancer according to the American Cancer Society include alcohol consumption, a diet high in fat and/or red meat and an inadequate intake of fruits and vegetables. Incidence continues to rise, especially in areas such as Japan, where the adoption of westernized diets with excess fat and meat intake and a decrease in fiber intake may be to blame. However, incidence rates are rising not as fast as previously, which may be due to increasing screening and polyp removal, thus preventing progression of polyps to cancer.
As in most solid tumors, first line treatment is surgery, however, its benefits remain confined to early-stage patients. A significant proportion of patients are diagnosed in advanced stages of the disease. For advanced colorectal cancer chemotherapy, regimens based on fluorouracil-based regimens are standard of care. The majority of these regimens are the so-called FOLFOX (infusional 5-FU/leucovorin plus oxaliplatin) and FOLFIRI (irinotecan, leucovorin, bolus and continuous-infusion 5-FU) protocols.
The introduction of third-generation cytotoxics such as irinotecan and oxaliplatin has raised the hope of significantly improving efficacy, but prognosis is still relatively poor, and the survival rate generally remains at approximately 20 months in metastatic disease and, as a result, the unmet needs in the disease remain high.
Recently, a novel generation of drugs, molecular-targeted agents, such as AVASTIN® (bevacizumab) and ERBITUX® (cetuximab), became available, and about 40 compounds are in late-stage clinical development for different stages of colorectal cancer. Combinations of several of these compounds increase the number of potential treatment options to be expected for the future. The vast majority of substances are in phase II, with the EGFR being addressed by these compounds more often than any other target in colorectal cancer trials, which is due to the fact that in ˜80% of patients with colorectal cancer, EGFR expression is upregulated.
Clinical trials with stage II patients combining chemotherapy with the recently approved monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) (cetuximab+irinotecan or FOLFOX4; bevacizumab as a single-agent or together with FOLFOX4) are currently being conducted. Three to four year observation periods are expected for statistically significant results from these trials.
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) presently used in oncology in general have an excellent chance of not interfering with active immunotherapy. In fact, there is preclinical (GABRILOVICH 1999) and clinical evidence suggesting that depletion of VEGF (by bevacizumab) contributes positively to DC-mediated activation of T-cells (Osada T, Chong G, Tansik R, Hong T, Spector N, Kumar R, Hurwitz H I, Dev I, Nixon A B, Lyerly H K, Clay T, Morse M A. The effect of anti-VEGF therapy on immature myeloid cell and dendritic cells in cancer patients. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2008 Jan. 10.).
Prostate Carcinoma and Other Tumors
With an estimated 27,050 deaths in 2007, prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer death in men. Although death rates have been declining among white and African American men since the early 1990s, rates in African American men remain more than twice as high as those in white men. Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in men. For reasons that remain unclear, incidence rates are significantly higher in African American men than in white men. Incidence rates of prostate cancer have changed substantially over the last 20 years: rapidly increasing from 1988-1992, declining sharply from 1992-1995, and increasing modestly since 1995. These trends in large part reflect increased prostate cancer screening with the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test. Moderate incidence increases in the last decade are most likely attributable to widespread PSA screening among men younger than 65. Prostate cancer incidence rates have leveled off in men aged 65 years and older. Rates peaked in white men in 1992 (237.6 per 100,000 men) and in African American men in 1993 (342.8 per 100,000 men).
Treatment for prostate cancer may involve watchful waiting, surgery, radiation therapy, High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU), chemotherapy, cryosurgery, hormonal therapy, or some combination. The best option depends on the stage of the disease, the Gleason score, and the PSA level. Other important factors are the man's age, his general health, and his feelings about potential treatments and their possible side effects. Because all treatments can have significant side effects, such as erectile dysfunction and urinary incontinence, treatment discussions often focus on balancing the goals of therapy with the risks of lifestyle alterations.
If the cancer has spread beyond the prostate, treatment options significantly change, so most doctors who treat prostate cancer use a variety of nomograms to predict the probability of spread. Treatment by watchful waiting, HIFU, radiation therapy, cryosurgery, and surgery are generally offered to men whose cancer remains within the prostate. Hormonal therapy and chemotherapy are often reserved for disease that has spread beyond the prostate. However, there are exceptions: radiation therapy may be used for some advanced tumors, and hormonal therapy is used for some early stage tumors. Cryotherapy, hormonal therapy, and chemotherapy may also be offered if initial treatment fails and the cancer progresses.
In a significant number of patients with prostate carcinoma who undergo radical prostatectomy because of clinically suspected organ-limited growth, a definitive histological workup of the surgical preparation shows a locally extensive tumor extending beyond the borders of the organ. These patients have a high risk for early local recurrence, usually detectable as increasing PSA level in terms of a biochemical relapse. Therapeutic options in this situation include external radiotherapy and hormone ablation; however, the value of these therapeutic approaches, especially with respect to prolonging the patient's long-term survival, must not be regarded as proven. In addition, possible treatment-associated complications such as the development of urethral strictures (radiotherapy), loss of libido and impotence, the risk of a reduction in skeletal calcium salts in terms of osteoporosis, and a markedly increased risk of pathologic bone fractures (hormone ablation) must be considered.
More than 90% of all prostate cancers are discovered in the local and regional stages; the 5-year relative survival rate for patients whose tumors are diagnosed at these stages approaches 100%. Over the past 25 years, the 5-year survival rate for all stages combined has increased from 69% to nearly 90%. According to the most recent data, relative 10-year survival is 93% and 15-year survival is 77%. The dramatic improvements in survival, particularly at 5 years, are partly attributable to earlier diagnosis and improvements in treatment. Nevertheless, the survival rate drops significantly after spreading to other tissues and organs.
Lung Cancer
Estimated 210,000 new cases are expected in 2007 in the USA, accounting for about 15% of cancer diagnoses. The incidence rate is declining significantly in men, from a high of 102 cases per 100,000 in 1984 to 78.5 in 2003. In women, the rate is approaching a plateau after a long period of increase. Lung cancer is classified clinically as small cell (13%) or non-small cell (87%) for the purposes of treatment.
Lung cancer accounts for the most cancer-related deaths in both men and women. An estimated 160,390 deaths, accounting for about 29% of all cancer deaths, are expected to occur in 2007. Since 1987, more women have died each year from lung cancer than from breast cancer. Death rates have continued to decline significantly in men from 1991-2003 by about 1.9% per year. Female lung cancer death rates are approaching a plateau after continuously increasing for several decades. These trends in lung cancer mortality reflect the decrease in smoking rates over the past 30 years.
Treatment options are determined by the type (small cell or non-small cell) and stage of cancer and include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and targeted biological therapies such as bevacizumab (AVASTIN®) and erlotinib (TARCEVA®). For localized cancers, surgery is usually the treatment of choice. Recent studies indicate that survival with early-stage, non-small cell lung cancer is improved by chemotherapy following surgery. Because the disease has usually spread by the time it is discovered, radiation therapy and chemotherapy are often used, sometimes in combination with surgery. Chemotherapy alone or combined with radiation is the usual treatment of choice for small cell lung cancer. However with this regimen, a large percentage of patients experience remission, which is long lasting in some cases.
The 1-year relative survival for lung cancer has slightly increased from 37% in 1975-1979 to 42% in 2002, largely due to improvements in surgical techniques and combined therapies. However, the 5-year survival rate for all stages combined is only 16%. The survival rate is 49% for cases detected when the disease is still localized; however, only 16% of lung cancers are diagnosed at this early stage.
TABLE 1Estimated new cancer cases and deaths by sex for the US in 2007 (AmericanCancer Society. Cancer Facts & FIGURES 2007. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2007.)Estimated New CasesEstimated DeathsSitesBoth SexesMaleFemaleBoth SexesMaleFemaleGlioma and Brain20,50011,1709,33012,7407,1505,590Breast180,5102,030178,48040,91045040,460Prostate218,890218,89027,05027,050Esophagus15,56012,1303,43013,94010,9003,040Colon112,34055,29057,05052,18026,00026,180Renal51,19031,59019,60012,8908,0804,810Pancreas37,17018,83018,34033,37016,84016,530Squamous cell1,000,000n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.carcinomas;Keratinocyticneoplasms of theskinLeukemia44,24024,80019,44021,79012,3209,470Lung213,380114,76098,620160,39089,51070,880Non-Hodgkins63,19034,21028,99018,6609,6009,060LymphomaOvarian22,43022,43015,28015,280 Melanoma59,94033,91026,0308,1105,2202,890
There thus remains a need for new efficacious and safe treatment option for glioblastoma, prostate tumor, breast cancer, esophageal cancer, colorectal cancer, clear cell renal cell carcinoma, lung cancer, CNS, ovarian, melanoma (Tamm et al. 1998) pancreatic cancer, squamous cell carcinoma, leukemia and medulloblastoma and other tumors that show an overexpression of survivin, as well as enhancing the well-being of the patients without using chemotherapeutic agents or other agents which may lead to severe side effects.